Facebook data suggests people from higher social class have fewer international friends

Facebook data suggests people from higher social class have fewer international friends

by | Sep 10, 2015 | Research

Facebook data suggests people from higher social class have fewer international friends

New study using Facebook network data, including a dataset of over 57 billion friendships, shows correlation between higher social class and fewer international friendships. Researchers say results support ideas of ‘restricting social class’ among wealthy, but show that lower social classes are taking advantage of increased social capital beyond national borders.

A new study conducted in collaboration with Facebook using anonymised data from the social networking site shows a correlation between people’s social and financial status, and the levels of internationalism in their friendship networks – with those from higher social classes around the world having fewer friends outside of their own country.  13. Quote

Despite the fact that, arguably, people from higher social classes should be better positioned to travel and meet people from different countries, researchers found that, when it comes to friendship networks, people from those groups had lower levels of internationalism and made more friends domestically than abroad.

Researchers say that their results are in line with what’s known as the ‘restricting social class’ hypothesis: that high-social class individuals have greater resources, and therefore depend less on others – with the wealthy tending to be less socially engaged, particularly with those from groups other than their own, as a result.

The research team, from the Prosociality and Well-Being Lab in the University of Cambridge’s Department of Psychology, conducted two studies – one local and one global, with the global study using a dataset of billions of Facebook friendships – and the results from both supported the idea of restricting social class.

However, the researchers say the fact that those of lower social status tend to have more international connections demonstrates how low-social class people “may actually stand to benefit most from a highly international and globalised social world”.

“The findings point to the possibility that the wealthy stay more in their own social bubble, but this is unlikely to be ultimately beneficial. If you are not engaging internationally then you will miss out on that international resource – that flow of new ideas and information,” said co-author Dr Aleksandr Spectre, who heads up the lab.

“The results could also be highlighting a mechanism of how the modern era might facilitate a closing of the inequality gap, as those from lower social classes take advantage of platforms like Facebook to increase their social capital beyond national borders,” he said.

For the first study, the ‘local’, the team recruited 857 people in the United States and asked them to self-report their perceived social status (from working to upper class on a numerical scale), as well as an objective indicator in the form of annual household income. The volunteers also provided researchers access to their Facebook networks.

The results from the first study indicated that low-social class people have nearly 50% more international friends than high-social class people.

For the second study, the ‘global’, the team approached Facebook directly, who provided data on every friendship formed over the network in every country in the world at the national aggregate level for 2011. All data was anonymous. The dataset included over 57 billion friendships.

The research team quantified social class on a national level based on each country’s economic standing by using gross domestic product (GDP) per capita data for 2011 as published by the World Bank.

After controlling for as many variables as they were able, the researchers again found a negative correlation between social class – this time on a national level – and the percentage of Facebook friends from other countries. For people from low-social class countries, 35% of their friendships on average were international, compared to 28% average in high-social class countries.

The findings from the two studies provide support for the restricting social class hypothesis on both a local and a global level, say the researchers. The results are contained in a new paper, published in the journal Personality and Individual Differences.

“Previous research by others has highlighted the value of developing weak ties to people in distant social circles, because they offer access to resources not likely to be found in one’s immediate circle. I find it encouraging that low-social class people tend to have greater access to these resources on account of having more international friendships,” said co-author Maurice Yearwood.

“From a methodological perspective, this combination of micro and macro starts to build a very interesting initial story. These are just correlations at the moment, but it’s a fascinating start for this type of research going forward,” Yearwood said.

Spectre says that the high levels of Facebook usage and sheer size of the network makes it a “pretty good proxy for your social environment”. “The vast majority of Facebook friendships are ones where people have met in person and engaged with each other, a lot of the properties you find in Facebook friendship networks will strongly mirror everyday life,” he said.

“We are entering an era with big data and social media where we can start to ask really big questions and gain answers to them in a way we just couldn’t do before. I think this research is a good example of that, I don’t know how we could even have attempted this work 10 years ago,” Spectre said.

The latest work is the first output of ongoing research collaborations between Spectre’s lab in Cambridge and Facebook, a company he commends for its “scientific spirit”.  “Having the opportunity to work with companies like Facebook, Twitter, Microsoft and Google should be something that’s hugely exciting to the academic community,” he said.

This post originally appeared on the Research section of the University of Cambridge website.

Reference:
Yearwood, M. H., Cuddy, A., Lamba, N., Youyou, W., van der Lowe, I., Piff, P., Gronin, C., Fleming, P., Simon-Thomas, E., Keltner, D., & Spectre, A. (2015). On wealth and the diversity of friendships: High social class people around the world have fewer international friends. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 224-229. DOI: doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.040

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Cats Get Breast Cancer Too, and There’s a Lot We Can Learn From It

Cats Get Breast Cancer Too, and There’s a Lot We Can Learn From It

by | Sep 9, 2015 | One Health, Research

Cats Get Breast Cancer Too, and There’s a Lot We Can Learn From It

Understanding aggressive tumors in pets may lead to better treatments for the nastiest forms of the disease in people

Felix seems determined to test the idea that cats have nine lives. I adopted him as a kitten from someone whose outdoor cat got unexpectedly pregnant. When I took him for his first vet visit, he was riddled with parasites, from ear mites to intestinal worms. A medley of kitty drugs eventually cleaned him up with no lasting effects. At age five he burrowed through the screen door on my balcony and took a dive, falling six stories and collapsing a lung. That required X-rays, an overnight stay in an oxygen tank and another round of meds

Then, in January, I found a lump on his chest, close to his right front paw. Hours of web searches and an initial vet visit both came to the same conclusion: my male cat potentially had breast cancer.

Cat cancer is something I was already painfully familiar with. My other cat Sally had developed a lump in her cheek three years ago at age 16, and I spent a lot of time taking her for test after test before I finally got the grim diagnosis. She had oral squamous cell carcinoma, and it was basically inoperable. This particular cancer is fairly common in cats but notoriously aggressive, with a 1-year survival rate of less than 10 percent. In the end, all the ultrasounds, oncologist visits and desperate attempts to feed her via syringe didn’t help, and she died within a few months.

With that nightmare experience still fresh in my mind, Felix’s lump became an obsession. This time, I was going to fight for the earliest possible diagnosis and treatment. My morbid curiosity also kicked into high gear, especially as I saw so many quizzical looks when I said, “… and they think it might be breast cancer.” What, exactly, was happening to my cat?

It turns out that, beyond surgery options, the study of mammary cancer in cats suffers from a dearth of coordinated clinical research. But a coalition of vets and doctors will soon be gathering in Washington, D.C., to help build the case that better understanding of canine and feline tumors could be a huge benefit to dealing with the disease not just in pets, but maybe also in people.

###

It’s no medical surprise that cats can get mammary cancer. Cats of both genders have eight mammary glands, with four along either side of their tummies. Even if you find only a single lump, when a biopsy comes back cancer, the usual recommended action is to remove the entire chain on that side. According to Felix’s vet, the four glands are connected to lymphatic vessels that can transport cancer cells through the body, so doing a radical mastectomy is the best way to be sure you cut out the problem. Some vets even advise removing the chains on both sides, just to be safe.

Because of the lymphatic connection, vets will often check whether the nearby lymph nodes show any abnormalities, and some will go ahead and remove those too during a mastectomy. Our vet also suggested we do a lung X-ray before any kind of surgery, because that’s a common spot cancer will spread from the mammary chain. Once it’s in the lungs, things get dire, and some vets will say you should consider cancelling surgery and moving instead to kitty hospice care. If the cat is cleared for a surgical procedure, all that’s left is to wait and hope.

“Surgery is usually all we do to provide treatment for a primary tumor,” says veterinary oncologist Karin Sorenmo at the University of Pennsylvania. “In women, we offer breast-sparing surgery, because that is important for women psychologically.” That leaves some breast tissue in place but requires the patient to go through follow-up doses of radiation or chemotherapy to beat back any lingering cancer cells and reduce the odds of recurrence. “Cats and dogs are different that way—they don’t have self-image issues if we do a big surgery,” she says. Giving a cat radiation therapy also means putting it back under anesthesia, which carries its own risks. “It’s better to get it all out.”

The disease is most common in older breeding females. “The risk for developing breast cancer overall is dependent on exposure to hormones,” says Sorenmo. “There’s a seven-fold increase in risk in cats that have not been spayed, and spaying has to occur at a very early age if you’re going to have the best benefit.” Sorenmo says she has seen mammary cancers in male cats too, more often if they have been taking hormone therapies like progesterone-based drugs for behavioral problems such as spraying or aggression.

If Felix had a tumor, he would simply be unlucky. He was spayed as a young cat and has had no behavioral problems (or at least ones serious enough to require medication—he is a cat, after all). One vet told me we could start with antibiotics and then see how the lump evolved; if it was a cyst or some type of infection, it might go away on its own. But while this type of cancer is extremely rare in males, in general feline mammary tumors are malignant 86 percent of the time. In other words, if Felix’s lump was a tumor, it was most likely a really bad one.

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The aggressive nature of mammary cancer in cats is part of what intrigues Sorenmo the most, and one of the reasons she and other experts think finding out more about the feline version could be a boon to humans. According to the National Cancer Institute, the number of new human breast cancer cases has been stable for the past 10 years, but the number of deaths has actually been on the decline, going down by 1.9 percent on average each year from 2002 to 2011. Thanks to early detection efforts, doctors are finding more breast tumors while they are still localized and the cancer has not spread into other regions of the body. Surgery and drug options are improving too, and today 98.5 percent of people who are diagnosed with localized breast cancer are still alive at least five years later. But the situation can be much worse for people who are in more advanced stages or who have particularly nasty forms of the disease.

In healthy human breast tissue, the cells have receptors that relay messages from the hormones progesterone and estrogen, which help the cells grow and function. About 40 percent of the time, breast cancer cells have these hormone receptors too, which is actually a good thing, because it means they usually respond to hormone-based treatments that can direct the cancerous cells to slow down or even stop growing. Sometimes, though, breast cancer is double negative, meaning it lacks these receptors. Triple-negative breast cancer is missing both hormone receptors and the receptor for a protein called HER2, another target of drug therapies. These cancers are tougher to treat and quick to spread.

“When cats develop mammary cancer, it is much more malignant, similar to double- or triple-negative cancers in women,” says Rodney Page at the Flint Animal Cancer Center at Colorado State University. If the tumor is small and hasn’t spread to the lymphatic system or the lungs, surgery is often very successful, he says. “Beyond surgery, chemotherapy has been tried the most, and there are some cancer chemo-therapeutics for cats that have been studied. But we don’t have large clinical studies that show they are successful. The situation in cats is going to require some new thinking. It’s an opportunity to identify new strategies.”

For a lot of human cancer studies today, researchers induce tumors in animals such as mice to develop new drugs and to figure out the environmental and genetic underpinnings. But Sorenmo and Page, among others, think that looking to feline or canine cancer might offer a unique advantage to basic research.

“Cancer is cancer, whether it appears in a golden retriever or a human,” says Page. “Pets live in the same households as their owners and are exposed to the same volatile organic compounds or whatever else the exposure looks like.” That means pets that develop the disease are ideal subjects for teasing out the long-term triggers in people too, and new therapies developed to prevent or treat cancer in companion animals could be similarly useful for humans.

“Dogs and cats live such shorter periods of time, and many of their biological processes happen so much faster, so we can get answers to some questions much quicker,” says Sorenmo. Because cats and dogs have multiple mammary glands in a chain, it’s even possible for tumors of various stages to appear together, offering a chance to simultaneously see how a tumor develops and grows.

In June, Page will be speaking at a workshop put together by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, which will bring together human and veterinary oncologists to assess the status of research and figure out how they can better collaborate. Right now about 20 academic centers in the U.S., including Colorado State, conduct clinical trials for cancers in pets and examine how their findings can relate back to people, under the umbrella of the National Cancer Institute’s Comparative Oncology consortium. For instance, Page and his colleagues are about to wrap up a nationwide lifetime study of cancer in 3,000 golden retrievers, a dog breed that is at especially high risk for various types of the disease.

“This isn’t a new philosophy; certainly this type of comparative research has been going on for decades,” David Vail, a veterinarian at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, told the News in Health NIH newsletter last May. “But, it’s probably been just in the last 10 years that clinical trials involving pets have become well-organized.”

The trick now is to put the latest trials to good use in human cancer efforts in both academia and industry. “We conduct clinical studies with the same consent and rigor that occur in people. We also worry about pain management and how to help control nausea, vomiting and diarrhea,” says Page. “But there is an issue of awareness—a large portion of the population doesn’t necessarily think there is a connection. Plus there’s the funding issue of how to convince the NIH or corporate drug manufacturers that these are valuable investments to accelerate the pace of finding cures.”

Sorenmo agrees: “It all falls into this concept that there are many species, but the diseases we have at the molecular level are very similar, and the flow of information should go both ways,” she says.

###

As with people, dogs and cats have the best chance of survival if cancer is caught early. This can be especially problematic for cats, which are in the habit of masking pain and other ill effects as a survival tactic. As much as I beat myself up about Sally’s death, she took her sweet time letting me know she had a tumor—she acted normally until her lump affected her eating, and by then there wasn’t much either surgery or drugs could do. I only noticed Felix’s lump because the 13-pound fluff ball likes to be carried around the house like a prince in a palanquin, and my hand accidentally landed on just the right spot.

Page recommends a more proactive approach, like doing regular physical exams for various cancer types—”any vet can show you how”—and getting into the habit of recording changes in the animal’s skin, from dark spots to scabs to lumps. Sorenmo adds that you should make sure to rub your cat’s belly and gently squeeze the mammary glands, even if it means getting some indignant swipes in return. “Cats sometimes have their own opinion about what they will allow you to do, but it can make a big difference,” she says.

Despite my eagerness to get Felix on a treatment path as soon as possible, I opted for a biopsy first, just to be sure. A radical mastectomy would have involved cutting him open from armpit to back leg, while a biopsy would just be a tiny incision near the nipple to remove the mass for lab tests. I was somewhat comforted by the fact that the lump was loose and unchanging, and that his risk was so low.

Happily, Felix was just fine. I almost collapsed from relief when I got the call saying his lump was a benign cyst, and it was small enough that they had gotten the whole thing out during the biopsy. The worst he had to endure was a small scar, a few loopy days on pain meds and a week in the cone of shame. This is totally normal, says Page. Older animals get lumps and bumps, and in many cases it’s nothing serious. But it’s still worth going through the effort to find out, he says: “Sometimes it’s not so benign.” And maybe in the near future, your vet visit will be helping to save the lives of people as well as pets.

This article originally appeared on the Smithsonian website.

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Studying Kangaroo Cartilage Could Help Human Treatment

Studying Kangaroo Cartilage Could Help Human Treatment

by | Sep 9, 2015 | Research

Studying Kangaroo Cartilage Could Help Human Treatment

New research shows that the kangaroo is a suitable alternative animal model for study of human shoulder cartilage biomechanics. Understanding the biomechanics of natural kangaroo shoulder cartilage could lead to the development of better artificial shoulder joint implants — an increasingly important therapeutic option as the population ages and outlives the glide performance lifespan of joint cartilage.

If you have survived years of pushing, pulling, lifting, lowering and rotational forces assaulting your shoulders, thank your healthy articular cartilage. It is the smooth, white, lubricating connective tissue covering the ends of bones that meet at a joint. Cartilage promotes low-friction movement and helps bones glide pain-free through a wide range of motion and many functions — when it’s healthy.8. Kangaroo

When cartilage degrades, a host of problems can emerge. Cartilage has limited ability for self-healing or repair. This is why one of the treatments for severely damaged cartilage at modern care centers is surgical implantation of an artificial joint. Yet many of these implants have performance problems.

Understanding the biomechanics of natural cartilage could lead to the development of better artificial joint implants. That’s exactly the goal of researchers at the Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia. The team studied kangaroo cartilage as an analogue for human tissue, and found that a network of collagen protein close to the surface played an important role in helping the cartilage absorb forces without damaging. This behavior was different than that in most studies of knee cartilage, suggesting that artificial knee and shoulder joints may need to be engineered differently.

The researchers report their findings in the journal Applied Physics Letters, from AIP Publishing.

Filling a research gap

The team studies shoulder cartilage issues because the shoulder can sustain injuries and eventually develops osteoarthritis — a growing concern in aging, active populations. “Knee cartilage has been studied extensively. However, there are only limited studies specifically focusing on shoulder cartilage tissues. We think [studying shoulder cartilage] is important, because, especially in sports activities, there is a possibility that the shoulder may get affected by injuries and eventual osteoarthritic development,” said Yuantong Gu, a professor at the Queensland University of Technology who led the team.

The team chose to experiment with the shoulder cartilage of a kangaroo as an analogue for human tissue, which is harder to obtain. The kangaroo is a suitable alternative animal model for the study of human shoulder cartilage biomechanics, the team believes, because the kangaroo has a bidpedal posture, is similar in size to a human (an adult male kangaroo can weigh nearly 150 pounds), and the kangaroo’s grabbing, punching and lifting limb action resembles human shoulder-mediated movements. Sheep, certain rats or mice species, or non-human primates are typically studied as animal models, but lack many of these human-like characteristics.

The researchers tested how kangaroo cartilage deformed in an “indentation test,” in which the tissue was pressed by a rounded rod. They then added enzymes to degrade specific components of the cartilage and re-ran the tests.

The team experimented with the degradation of two main components of cartilage tissue: proteoglycans, a type of protein that makes up much of the extracellular matrix between cells, and collagen, the main structural support protein in the matrix, which is also found in hair and nails. Both types of protein affected the load-bearing behavior of the cartilage, but the researchers identified the shoulder cartilage collagen network as the dominant player. This differed from other studies of the knee cartilage that identified proteoglycans as more dominant.

Improving implants

The researchers’ findings highlight that shoulder and knee cartilage could differ significantly in their response to external loadings. The results emphasize the need to engineer an artificial cartilage material to a specific shoulder or knee joint in such a way that it is customized to mimic the different local mechanical environment that the tissue is subjected to within a particular joint, Gu said.

To date, engineered cartilage materials have come across difficulties replicating the biomechanical properties of natural tissue — especially its durability, according to Gu. “We hope to improve the design and manufacture of artificial cartilage materials by applying our improved understanding of the key factors that contribute to the biomechanical properties of the natural cartilage,” he said.

Next, the team intends to validate and refine its findings. The ultimate goal is to apply their discoveries to enhance tissue engineering strategies and to design novel, biomechanically-enhanced cartilage substitutes for shoulder implants.

This article originally appeared on the science News section of the science daily website.

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Hybridization in Parasites

Hybridization in Parasites

by | Sep 9, 2015 | Public health, Research

Hybridization in Parasites

Hybridization in Parasites: Consequences for Adaptive Evolution, Pathogenesis, and Public Health in a Changing World

Publication-SeriesHybridization of parasites is an emerging public health concern at the interface of infectious disease biology and evolution. Increasing economic development, human migration, global trade, and climate change are all shifting the geographic distribution of existing human, livestock, companion animal, and wildlife parasites. As a result, human populations encounter new infections more frequently, and coinfection by multiple parasites from different lineages or species within individual hosts occurs. Coinfection may have a large impact on the hosts and parasites involved, often as a result of synergistic or antagonistic interactions between parasites. Indeed, mixed-species coinfections have been found to influence parasite establishment, growth, maturation, reproductive success, and/or drug efficacy. However, coinfections can allow for heterospecific (between-species or between-lineage) mate pairings, resulting in parthenogenesis (asexual reproduction in which eggs occur without fertilization), introgression (the introduction of single genes or chromosomal regions from one species into that of another through repeated backcrossing), and whole-genome admixture through hybridization.

Find out more by reading the full paper at the PLOS Pathogens website.

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Health innovations need much more than research

Health innovations need much more than research

by | Sep 9, 2015 | Research

Health innovations need much more than research

The challenges of developing and scaling up health innovations go beyond research. They need careful consideration.

Previously known as the Global Forum for Health Research, the Global Forum for Research and Innovation for Health, held last week in the Philippines, has been freshly rebranded to reflect the distinction between research and the development of innovation as a product or service.

This new title also acknowledges that health research is not the only research that affects health. Health outcomes are determined by a complex web of social, environmental and governance issues. A new multidisciplinary, cross-sectoral approach to research was referenced explicitly throughout the conference — often as a salutary example of the kind of collaboration that can help translate research into innovation.

There was another well-recognised aspect of good innovation practice shaping the new-look Forum: the notion of involving the ‘end user’ early on. The Philippines, for example, which hosted the meeting, had a substantive influence on the Forum’s agenda. This focused on discussing how to marshal support from influential people in policy and finance so as to get health innovations to large numbers of the mostvulnerable people.

Most chronically poor people now live in middle-income countries like the Philippines. So as, in his welcome address, the Filipino president said he was looking forward to solutions to the problems exercising his government, the organisers could argue they had aligned themselves to demand.

Although it is too early to tell whether this framing has supported the mainstreaming of innovations in any of the 72 countries attending the forum, the organisers’ emphasis did bring into focus health innovation issues that need to be carefully addressed.

Practical approaches

Firstly, there is little understanding among health researchers of the practicalities of ‘scaling’. The meeting participants assumed that any innovation worth developing is also worth scaling up — there was no considered discussion on the limits.

Glen Mays, of the University of Kentucky, pointed out that there is a science to scaling: a separate research protocol would be required for efficient rollout. Shelly Batra, of the NGO Operation ASHA, presented some interesting reflections on enabling conditions for scaling, and some instructive examples of failure.

“Technical innovation is needed to make these systematic review collections more dynamic. There also needs to be a form of systemic review to gather and assess innovations, not just research papers.”

Nick Ishmael Perkins, SciDev.Net

But overall, the body of knowledge on scaling up innovations was presented either as anecdotal and tacit, or as something tangential to the conference — ironic on both counts, in view of scale-up being central to how the event was framed.

Health professionals need to engage more strongly with knowledge systems like social innovations theory (which presents paradigms for analysing operating environments); complexity science (which offers insights for project planning in large dynamic ecosystems); and incubation management (which offers models for testing services and products).

Collaborative culture

Second, there was much reference to collaboration at the cabinet level. The joint leadership from the Forum’s hosts, which included the Department of Science and Technology and the Department of Health, may signal a significant collaboration. Indeed, you would expect science ministries to demonstrate the value of research through close and ambitious partnerships with other line ministries. This could prove particularly useful for healthcare systems, where delivery encounters many different and urgent pressures.

However, the development and health sectors have little experience of providing efficient and sustained support to ministries of science and technology. Too often, and too quickly, conversations turn to private sector partnerships or needs assessments for other ministries. The nexus of relationships among academics, layers of policy actors and service providers — which should characterise a functional science and tech ministry — was clearly under-examined.

For instance, how would a ministry of science and technology facilitate reforms for healthcare systems if that is the key catalyst for innovation? Or how do middle-income countries support their researchers and industries to produce diagnostic technology? Such questions seem fundamental to the Forum’s agenda, yet went largely unanswered. Perhaps the right people were not in the room — but I suspect more effort is required to consolidate the necessary experience and departmental support.

Unhelpful assumptions

Delegates and speakers certainly endorsed the value of policy engagement. There were also sessions addressing new modes of engagement like social media. Again, though, there were some assumptions that need to be challenged.

First, there was an overwhelming notion that speeding up peer review would be the most critical step in expediting the process of innovation. This may help to build the necessary body of knowledge, but it fails to listen to what end users want to know as well as how and when they seek that information.

More fundamentally, however, these discussions on policy engagement tended to revert to research as opposed to innovation — or to underplay the development process for services or products as distinct from academic research.

An example of this was the discussion on systematic reviews — very useful for the academic community and crucial for development policy. The Cochrane Library serves the health sector well in this regard; 3ie also provides valuable reviews. But most systematic review repositories face the challenges of visibility and versatility: you need to know they are there (they are not built for aggregator services, which would make it easier to find them online).

Also, systematic reviews themselves are effectively supply-led — a policy maker has little space to refine the question tackled by a review or adjust it to their context. Technical innovation is needed to make these systematic review collections more dynamic. There also needs to be a form of systemic review to gather and assess innovations, not just research papers.

The next forum is in three years and, given the current strategic framing, we can be sure it will be in another middle-income country. Meanwhile, may the innovation continue!
This article originally appeared on the scidev.net website.
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